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  To Anne, Brice, and Nan

  Timeline of U.S. Presidential Elections

  Election Year: 1788–1789

  Winner: George Washington (no party)—69 electoral votes

  Other Major Candidates: John Adams** (no party)—34 electoral votes

  John Jay (no party)—9

  Robert H. Harrison (no party)—6

  John Rutledge (no party)—6

  Election Year: 1792

  Winner: George Washington (no party)—132

  Other Major Candidates: John Adams** (Federalist)—77

  George Clinton (Democratic-Republican)—50

  Election Year: 1796

  Winner: John Adams (Federalist)—71

  Other Major Candidates: Thomas Jefferson** (Democratic-Republican)—68

  Thomas Pinckney (Federalist)—59

  Aaron Burr (Democratic-Republican)—30

  Samuel Adams (Democratic-Republican)—15

  Oliver Ellsworth (Federalist)—11

  George Clinton (Democratic-Republican)—7

  Election Year: 1800

  Winner: Thomas Jefferson (Democratic-Republican)—73 [32]

  Other Major Candidates: Aaron Burr** (Democratic-Republican)—73[32]

  John Adams (Federalist)—65

  Charles Cotesworth Pinckney (Federalist)—64

  Election Year: 1804

  Winner: Thomas Jefferson (Democratic-Republican)—162

  Other Major Candidates: Charles Cotesworth Pinckney (Federalist)—14

  Election Year: 1808

  Winner: James Madison (Democratic-Republican)—122

  Other Major Candidates: Charles Cotesworth Pinckney (Federalist)—47

  George Clinton (Democratic-Republican)—6

  James Monroe (Democratic-Republican)—0

  Election Year: 1812

  Winner: James Madison (Democratic-Republican)—128

  Other Major Candidates: DeWitt Clinton (Federalist)—89

  Election Year: 1816

  Winner: James Monroe (Democratic-Republican)—183

  Other Major Candidates: Rufus King (Federalist)—34

  Election Year: 1820

  Winner: James Monroe (Democratic-Republican)—228/231 [33]

  Other Major Candidates: John Quincy Adams (Democratic-Republican)—1

  Election Year: 1824*†

  Winner: John Quincy Adams* (Democratic-Republican)—84[34]

  Other Major Candidates: Andrew Jackson† (Democratic-Republican)—99[34]

  William H. Crawford (Democratic-Republican)—41

  Henry Clay (Democratic-Republican)—37

  Election Year: 1828

  Winner: Andrew Jackson (Democrat)—178

  Other Major Candidates: John Quincy Adams (National Republican)—83

  Election Year: 1832

  Winner: Andrew Jackson (Democrat)—219

  Other Major Candidates: Henry Clay (National Republican)—49

  John Floyd (Nullifier)—11

  William Wirt (Anti-Masonic)—7

  Election Year: 1836

  Winner: Martin Van Buren (Democrat)—170

  Other Major Candidates: William Henry Harrison (Whig)—73

  Hugh Lawson White (Whig)—26

  Daniel Webster (Whig)—14

  Willie Person Mangum (Whig)—11

  Election Year: 1840

  Winner: William Henry Harrison (Whig)—234

  Other Major Candidates: Martin Van Buren (Democrat)—60

  Election Year: 1844*

  Winner: James K. Polk* (Democrat)—170

  Other Major Candidates: Henry Clay (Whig)—105

  James G. Birney (Liberty)—0

  Election Year: 1848*

  Winner: Zachary Taylor (Whig)—163

  Other Major Candidates: Lewis Cass (Democrat)—127

  Martin Van Buren (Free-Soil)—0

  Election Year: 1852

  Winner: Franklin Pierce (Democrat)—254

  Other Major Candidates: Winfield Scott (Whig)—42

  John P. Hale (Free-Soil)—0

  Election Year: 1856*

  Winner: James Buchanan* (Democrat)—174

  Other Major Candidates: John C. Frémont (Republican)—114

  Millard Fillmore (American Party/Whig)—8

  Election Year: 1860*

  Winner: Abraham Lincoln* (Republican)—180

  Other Major Candidates: John C. Breckinridge (Southern Democrat)—72

  John Bell (Constitutional Union)—39

  Stephen A. Douglas (Northern Democrat)—12

  Election Year: 1864[35]

  Winner: Abraham Lincoln (National Union)—212

  Other Major Candidates: George B. McClellan (Democrat)—21

  Election Year: 1868

  Winner: Ulysses S. Grant (Republican)—214

  Other Major Candidates: Horatio Seymour (Democrat)—80

  Election Year: 1872

  Winner: Ulysses S. Grant (Republican)—286

  Other Major Candidates: Horace Greeley (Democrat/Liberal Republican)—0[36]

  Thomas A. Hendricks (Democrat)—42

  B. Gratz Brown (Democrat/Liberal Republican)—18

  Charles J. Jenkins (Democrat)—2

  Election Year: 1876*‡

  Winner: Rutherford B. Hayes* (Republican)—185

  Other Major Candidates: Samuel J. Tilden‡ (Democrat)—184

  Election Year: 1880*

  Winner: James A. Garfield* (Republican)—214

  Other Major Candidates: Winfield Scott Hancock (Democrat)—155

  James Weaver (Greenback)—0

  Election Year: 1884*

  Winner: Grover Cleveland* (Democrat)—219

  Other Major Candidates: James G. Blaine (Republican)—182

  John St. John (Prohibition)—0

  Benjamin Franklin Butler (Greenback)—0

  Election Year: 1888*†

  Winner: Benjamin Harrison* (Republican)—233

  Other Major Candidates: Grover Cleveland† (Democrat)—168

  Clinton B. Fisk (Prohibition)—0

  Alson Streeter (Union Labor)—0

  Election Year: 1892*

  Winner: Grover Cleveland* (Democrat)—277

  Other Major Candidates: Benjamin Harrison (Republican)—145

  James Weaver (Populist)—22

  John Bidwell (Prohibition)—0

  Election Year: 1896

  Winner: William McKinley (Republican)—271

  Other Major Candidates: William Jennings Bryan (Democrat/Populist)—176

  Election Year: 1900

  Winner: William McKinley (Republican)—292

  Other Major Candidates: William Jennings Bryan (Democrat)—155

  John Woolley (Prohibition)—0

  Election Year: 1904

  Winner: Theodore Roosevelt (Republican)—336

  Other Major Candidates: Alton B. Parker (Democrat)—140

  Eugene V. Debs (Socialist)—0

  Silas C. Swallow (Prohibition)—0

  Election Year: 1908

  Winner: William Howard Taft (Republican)—321

  Other Major Candidates: William Jennings Bryan (Democrat)—162

  Eugene V. Debs
(Socialist)—0

  Eugene W. Chafin (Prohibition)—0

  Election Year: 1912*

  Winner: Woodrow Wilson* (Democrat)—435

  Other Major Candidates: Theodore Roosevelt (Progressive)—88

  William Howard Taft (Republican)—8

  Eugene V. Debs (Socialist)—0

  Eugene W. Chafin (Prohibition)—0

  Election Year: 1916*

  Winner: Woodrow Wilson* (Democrat)—277

  Other Major Candidates: Charles Evans Hughes (Republican)—254

  Allan L. Benson (Socialist)—0

  James Hanly (Prohibition)—0

  Election Year: 1920

  Winner: Warren G. Harding (Republican)—404

  Other Major Candidates: James M. Cox (Democrat)—127

  Eugene V. Debs (Socialist)—0

  Election Year: 1924

  Winner: Calvin Coolidge (Republican)—382

  Other Major Candidates: John W. Davis (Democrat)—136

  Robert M. La Follette Sr. (Progressive)—13

  Election Year: 1928

  Winner: Herbert Hoover (Republican)—444

  Other Major Candidates: Al Smith (Democrat)—87

  Election Year: 1932

  Winner: Franklin D. Roosevelt (Democrat)—472

  Other Major Candidates: Herbert Hoover (Republican)—59

  Norman Thomas (Socialist)—0

  Election Year: 1936

  Winner: Franklin D. Roosevelt (Democrat)—523

  Other Major Candidates: Alf Landon (Republican)—8

  William Lemke (Union)—0

  Election Year: 1940

  Winner: Franklin D. Roosevelt (Democrat)—449

  Other Major Candidates: Wendell Willkie (Republican)—82

  Election Year: 1944

  Winner: Franklin D. Roosevelt (Democrat)—432

  Other Major Candidates: Thomas E. Dewey (Republican)—99

  Election Year: 1948*

  Winner: Harry S. Truman* (Democrat)—303

  Other Major Candidates: Thomas E. Dewey (Republican)—189

  Strom Thurmond (States’ Rights Democrat)—39

  Henry A. Wallace (Progressive/Labor)—0

  Election Year: 1952

  Winner: Dwight D. Eisenhower (Republican)—442

  Other Major Candidates: Adlai Stevenson (Democrat)—89

  Election Year: 1956

  Winner: Dwight D. Eisenhower (Republican)—457

  Other Major Candidates: Adlai Stevenson (Democrat)—73

  Election Year: 1960*

  Winner: John F. Kennedy* (Democrat)—303

  Other Major Candidates: Richard Nixon (Republican)—219

  Harry F. Byrd (Democrat)—15[37]

  Election Year: 1964

  Winner: Lyndon B. Johnson (Democrat)—486

  Other Major Candidates: Barry Goldwater (Republican)—52

  Election Year: 1968*

  Winner: Richard Nixon* (Republican)—301

  Other Major Candidates: Hubert Humphrey (Democrat)—191

  George Wallace (American Independent)—46

  Election Year: 1972

  Winner: Richard Nixon (Republican)—520

  Other Major Candidates: George McGovern (Democrat)—17

  John G. Schmitz (American)—0

  John Hospers (Libertarian)—1

  Election Year: 1976

  Winner: Jimmy Carter (Democrat)—297

  Other Major Candidates: Gerald Ford (Republican)—240

  Election Year: 1980

  Winner: Ronald Reagan (Republican)—489

  Other Major Candidates: Jimmy Carter (Democrat)—49

  John B. Anderson (no party)—0

  Ed Clark (Libertarian)—0

  Election Year: 1984

  Winner: Ronald Reagan (Republican)—525

  Other Major Candidates: Walter Mondale (Democrat)—13

  Election Year: 1988

  Winner: George H. W. Bush (Republican)—426

  Other Major Candidates: Michael Dukakis (Democrat)—111

  Election Year: 1992*

  Winner: Bill Clinton* (Democrat)—370

  Other Major Candidates: George H. W. Bush (Republican)—168

  Ross Perot (no party)—0

  Election Year: 1996*

  Winner: Bill Clinton* (Democrat)—379

  Other Major Candidates: Bob Dole (Republican)—159

  Ross Perot (Reform)—0

  Election Year: 2000*†

  Winner: George W. Bush* (Republican)—271

  Other Major Candidates: Al Gore† (Democrat)—266

  Ralph Nader (Green)—0

  Election Year: 2004

  Winner: George W. Bush (Republican)—286

  Other Major Candidates: John Kerry (Democrat)—251

  Election Year: 2008

  Winner: Barack Obama (Democrat)—365

  Other Major Candidates: John McCain (Republican)—173

  Election Year: 2012

  Winner: Barack Obama (Democrat)—332

  Other Major Candidates: Mitt Romney (Republican)—206

  Introduction

  Across from the mayor’s office in Manchester, New Hampshire, is a little exhibit celebrating the first-in-the-nation primary. I interviewed Senator Rand Paul there as I covered his unofficial kickoff to his 2016 presidential campaign.

  In the Primary Room is a replica of a newspaper about another Senate candidate, Edmund Muskie of Maine. The headline of the 1972 New Hampshire Sunday News reads, “Muskie Calls Loeb a Liar.” The deck adds “Senator Rants Emotionally at Publisher.” It was a turning point for Muskie. In a speech on a flatbed truck in the snow, he attacked William Loeb of the Manchester Union Leader and appeared to cry. Supporters said they weren’t tears, but melted snow. Popular lore held that the fallout from the crying doomed Muskie’s candidacy.

  It’s a familiar tale to campaign junkies. It’s one of the stories reporters might rehash after a long day following candidates. One person recounts a little piece of the story, is topped by the next one, and a third reporter embellishes. Since I wasn’t at the bar yet, I posted a picture of the newspaper on Instagram, with the caption “It made me weep.” Jonathan Martin of the New York Times posted not long after, “It was the snow!!!!” Peter Hamby of CNN quoted from Muskie: “This man Loeb doesn’t walk, he crawls.”

  This book grew out of exchanges like that one. Over the last six presidential cycles I’ve covered, I’ve collected a lot of stories like this about previous campaigns. While you’re watching one race, there’s usually an echo from the past that gives you a guide about what might happen. I’ve put some of those stories down here, retaining the thematic structure of reporter conversations where we hopscotch across time—talking about 1948 one moment and 1976 the next.

  Watching Edmund Muskie’s New Hampshire crucible on film in order to write chapter six, it was even more colorful than I had known, but reading the oral history of the campaign, I realized it’s a story about something more than just a candidate crack-up. It’s really a story about how expectations for a campaign can sink a candidate. That tale of expectations is one story we see again and again in presidential campaigns, even the 2016 race. Chapter four, the story of Bill Clinton’s 1992 comeback in the Granite State twenty years later, is about how expectations worked in an entirely different fashion.

  When I first told some of these stories on the Slate podcast Whistlestop, I took my cues from what was happening in the political conversation in 2015 and 2016. Donald Trump’s surprise success was historic. So was Bernie Sanders’s unexpected string of victories. But there were also historical antecedents. Reading old newspapers on my iPad while flying back from an interview with a 2016 candidate, the stories felt very familiar. The broken links to the past tell us something too about how we’ve changed our standards and about the values and thinking behind the way we look at presidential campaigns today.

  The 1840 presidential campaign circus that helped sell William Henry Harrison to the public seemed a lot like the Trump
circus seems today. The candidates couldn’t be more different—Harrison was packaged as a humble farmer, and Trump was running on his wealth—but the daylong parade the Whigs devoted to their candidate was as raucous and issue-free and pitched to the appetites of the masses as a Trump rally kicked off by the candidate buzzing a stadium in his 757 or the helicopter rides he was giving at the Iowa State Fair. At the same time, John Quincy Adams, who fretted about candidates who made gaudy appeals to the people, would look at the rise of the reality-show candidate and say, “This is what we worried about.”

  Andrew Jackson is losing his place on the twenty dollar bill, but his argument for the wisdom of the people over the elites sounds a lot like what Bernie Sanders and Donald Trump are saying today. To understand Bernie Sanders requires understanding the frustration people have about an economy they think is rigged, but it can also be explained in the historical liberal yearning for a process where the people have a chance to overthrow the powerful and the privileged. That story starts in chapter thirteen in 1824 and moves through Truman in 1948, McGovern in 1972, and Dean in 2004.

  These are stories about personalities—Jefferson, Truman, Kennedy, Reagan—but campaigns are also a reflection of the country that elevates or destroys those personalities. Real dreams are at stake. When the McGovern campaign crumpled over his choice of Thomas Eagleton as his running mate, it may very well have doomed the liberal experiment for a generation, as historian Bruce Miroff suggests. If Edward Kennedy and Howard Dean had managed their campaigns better, perhaps their ideas would have prevailed. Gerald Ford and Ronald Reagan had a dramatic fight during the 1976 campaign that might have looked like just a battle over delegates in a chess match for power, but at the heart of that campaign was an ideological battle about what was possible in government and what it meant to be a conservative. The capitulation Ronald Reagan saw in Gerald Ford is the same one Republican candidates identified in their GOP leaders in 2016.

  The elements of passion, authenticity, and ideas wind through all of these moments. On the Republican side, the echoes of 1952 and 1976 are everywhere as the GOP wrestles for its identity in 2016 and as the establishment and grassroots tussle for supremacy. The #NeverTrump movement shares so many parallels with the 1964 Stop Goldwater movement that it even includes Governor Mitt Romney playing a very similar role to the one his father, Governor George Romney, played a generation before. In George Wallace’s 1968 campaign we hear such close echoes of Donald Trump that it’s as if the transcripts have been transposed.

  When I first started as a secretary at Time Inc. in New York, I lived in the Strand bookstore on weekends, where a little nook contained lots of the books that I’ve relied on here. The prices written in pencil in the corners under the covers were just right for my budget. I had read them over the years as I covered campaigns. Going through them as I wrote Whistlestop, I found plane tickets from the Dole campaign in 1996, old business cards, napkins, and hasty marginalia that seemed vital at the time, judging from the check marks, asterisks, and exclamation points. I’d carried some of those books to my first two conventions in 1992. In the days before cell phones, one of my jobs was to care for the phones reporters used on the convention floor. I’d set them out at the start of the day and collect them for safekeeping overnight.